What is Sociology?

A systematic study of human societies, giving special emphasis to modern, industrialized systems. Sociology is one of a group of social sciences, which includes also anthropology, economics, political science and human geography. The divisions between the various social sciences are not clear-cut, and all share a certain range of common interests, concepts and methods.

Sociology came into being as an attempt to understand the far-reaching changes that have occurred in human societies over the past two to three centuries. The changes involved are not just large-scale ones. Major shifts have also occurred in the most intimate and personal characteristics of people´s lives. The development of a stress on romantic love as a basis for marriage is an example of this.

The practice of sociology involves the ability to think imaginatively and to detach oneself from preconceived ideas about social life. (A stick with hair = no teeth no sex, no children. Not wearing clothes.) We see as familiar our own, we need to take a broader view of why we are as we are, and why we act as we do. What is natural, inevitable, good or true may not be such, and that the “givens” in our life are strongly influenced by historical and social forces.

Background to the origin	Origin	Now
French Revolution of 1789 Industrial Revolution Gods and spirits caused natural events – i.e., earthquakes.	19th century (1800-1899) What is human nature? Why is society structured like it is? How and why do societies change?	emphasis to modern, industrialized systems

Among the classical founders of sociology, four figures are particularly important: Auguste Comte, Karl Marx, Émile Durkheim and Max Weber. Comte and Marx, working in the mid-nineteenth century, established some of the basic issues of sociology, later elaborated on by Durkheim and Weber. These issues concern the nature of sociology and the impact of the development of modern societies on the social world.

Name	Years	Beliefs / Actions
Auguste Comte	1798-1857 French	Invented word “sociology” This new field could produce scientific evidence to contribute in welfare of humanity using science to understand and therefore predict and control human behavior.
Émile Durkheim	1858-1917 French	Believed Comte was too speculative (approximate) and vague. Wanted sociology to be more scientific. Sociology must study scientific facts, “study social facts as things.” What holds society together is shared values and customs—it is the main source of social change. Anomie – a feeling of aimlessness, or despair provoked by modern social life. Life lacks meaning. Analysis of suicide – seems a personal act, but he showed that social factors exert a fundamental influence on suicidal behavior. Patterns in suicide can be explained sociologically.
Karl Marx	1818-83 German	Politician. Emphasis on social changes during Industrial Revolution. His work was important for the development of sociology. Concentrated on connecting economic problems related to social institutions—this is rich in sociological insights. Founded viewpoint called materialist conception of history. Was against Durkheim´s claim that social change was because of values, rather it is by economic influences: the conflicts between classes—the rich versus the poor. This provides the motivation for historical development. “All human history thus far is the history of class struggles.” Capitalism contrasts radically with previous economic systems in history. Those who own capital are the ruling class: factories, machines and large sums of money. The mass of population make up a class of wage workers, or working class who do not own the means of their livelihood (means of support or subsistence) but must find employment provided by the owners of capital. The future: he believed that eventually society would become classless with communal ownership. (Communism: political ideas associated with Marx, developed particularly by Lenin, and institutionalized in China and, until 1990, in the Soviet Union and eastern Europe. Dictionary definition of communism: a theory of social organization in which goods are held in common according to needs.) At one point more than 1/3 of the world claimed to have a government inspired from Marx´s ideas.
Max Weber	1864-1920 German	He was concerned with development of modern capitalism. Influenced by Marx but critical of Marx´s major views. He rejected the materialist conception of history and saw class conflict as less significant. Yes, economic factors are important, but ideas and values have just as much impact on social change. He compared western civilizations (European) with those of China, India and the Near East. He also studied their religions and compared to Christian beliefs, he came to belief that Christianity strongly influenced the rise of capitalism. In his view, cultural ideas and values help shape society and shape our individual actions. Economics is only one among many influential factors that shape society: Science and bureaucracy are also major factors. Science: shapes modern technology and will continue to do so in any future society. Bureaucracy: government marked by specialization of functions under fixed rules and a hierarchy of authority. Also, an unwieldy (Wield = handle, not easily managed or handle) administrative system burdened with excessive complexity and lack of flexibility. Bureaucracy is the only way of organizing large numbers of people effectively, and therefore inevitably expands with economic and political growth. Weber called the development of science, modern technology and bureaucracy collectively rationalization: the organization of social and economic life according to principles of efficiency and on the basis of technical knowledge.

According to its founders, sociology is a science in the sense that it involves systematic methods of investigation and the evaluation of theories in the light of evidence and logical argument. But it cannot be modeled directly on the natural sciences, because studying human behavior is in fundamental ways different from studying the world of nature.

Science is the use of systematic methods of empirical investigation, the analysis of data, theoretical thinking and the logical assessment of arguments.

Sociology has important practical implications (association, involvement). It can contribute to social criticism and practical social reform in several ways. First, the improved understanding of a given set of social circumstances often gives us all a better chance of controlling them. Second, sociology provides the means of increasing our cultural sensitivities, allowing policies to be based on an awareness of divergent (different) cultural values. Third, we can investigate the consequences (intended and unintended) of the adoption of particular policy programs. Finally, and perhaps most important, sociology provides self-enlightenment, offering groups and individuals an increased opportunity to alter the conditions of their own lives. (Example: teen smoking, pros and cons)

Important Terms

Sociology – The systematic study of human behavior and social life, groups and societies, giving particular emphasis to the analysis of the industrialized world. Sociology is a social science; the subject matter is our own behavior as social beings.

Society – the most important of all sociological notions. A society is a group of people who live in a particular territory, are subject to a common system of political authority, and are aware of having a distinct identity from other groups around them. Some societies can be very small, others at more than a billion.

Sociological imagination – the application of imaginative thought to the asking and answering of sociological questions. The sociological imagination involves one in “thinking oneself away” from the familiar routines of the day-to-day life.

Unintended consequences – consequences which result from behavior initiated for other purposes. Many of the major features of social activity are unintended by those who participate in it.

Social reproduction – the processes which sustain or perpetuate (continue, maintain) characteristics of social structure over periods of time. It refers to how societies “keep going” over time. It occurs because there is continuity in what people do from day to day and year to year and in the social practices they follow.

Social transformation – processes of change in “societies” or social systems. Changes occur partly because people intend them to occur, and partly because of consequences that no one foresees or intends.

Anomie – a concept first brought into wide usage in sociology by Durkheim, referring to a situation in which social norms lose their hold over individual behavior.

Materialist conception of history – The view developed by Marx, according to which “material” or economic factors have a prime role in determining historical change.

Capitalism – a system of economic enterprise based on market exchange. “Capital” refers to wealth or money used to invest in a market with the hope of achieving a profit. Nearly all industrial societies today are capitalist in orientation—their economic systems are based on free enterprise and on economic competition.

Self-enlightenment – The increased understanding of the conditions of their lives which people may achieve through social investigation—possibly allowing them to take action to alter those conditions.